Siddhartha Gautama: The Founder of Buddhism

 Prince Siddhartha Gautama, otherwise known as the Buddha or the “awakened one”, is credited to have founded the religion Buddhism. Buddhism left a tremendous impact on the region of the Silk Road, and shaped the Silk Road in significant way. Buddhism was the majority religion along the Silk Road, and captured people’s attention, and imagination. It was not only a religion along the Silk Road, but a concept, and experience as well. Siddhartha Gautama, or Buddha, was an individual whose teachings and influences shaped the history of the Silk Road.

Siddhartha Gautama was born the son of a king of the Sakya clan of the Kshatriya, or warrior caste, in 567 BCE. He was born  in the Himalayan foothills in what is now modern-day Nepal. There are very limited texts on Buddha himself, and very few texts that precisely give information on his early life.Early myths and legends describe Siddhartha Gautama as a young prince born into a wealthy, royal family. As a child, he lived a very secluded life, only surrounded by health and beauty, and preparing to take over his father’s throne. As Siddhartha grew up, he became interested in what lied outside of the world he had grown up in, and was curious about what could lie beyond.

At age 29, Siddhartha decided to leave his palace and luxurious life, and embark on a journey to find the true meaning of life. On his journey, he encountered several teachers that taught him how to meditate. Learning how to meditate became important, as Siddhartha discovered a way to master one’s self, and separate the mind from the physical world. He discovered that meditation was a way to disconnect a human being’s mind from their desires and physical interests. He tried many different means to find enlightenment on his journey living with bare minimum in a forest, and almost starved himself to death. He later crossed paths with an elderly, sick man, and for the first time in his life was introduced to the notion of suffering in the world. This encounter left an impact on Siddhartha’s outlook on life, and allowed him to realize that suffering was part of the human condition. This lead to him trying to seek for spiritual answers to the truth of human condition. After six years of meditation and starvation, Siddhartha Gautama had a realization that punishing one’s self was not the answer. Rather, moderation was the answer to one achieving the goal of enlightenment.

It was then, that Siddhartha reached the point of nirvana. Nirvana is the awakened, detached state of compassion. Meaning, there is a disconnection from desires, and the physical world. Siddhartha Gautama was 35 years old when he reached this state of nirvana, and wanted to go out and teach other people how to achieve this state. Siddhartha was later to be known as the Buddha, or the “chosen one”. He was regarded as wise, and sage, among his followers.The religion of Buddhism begins with the teachings of Dharma following the four Nobel truths, and to do so would lead one to enlightenment. These four steps included:

• The recognition that life is suffering
• Recognition that suffering is caused by desires/ craving
• Suffering can have an end
• There is a path that leads to the end of suffering

According to Buddha and his teachings, bringing these four truths into harmony would achieve Nirvana, which was the highest good of Buddhism. The most significant part of Buddha’s philosophy, that influences the Buddhist religion, is the idea that desires that can not be fulfilled perpetuates anxieties and fear, which than leads to suffering. In order to end suffering, one must let go of all their desires, and live in moderation. Other aspects of Buddhism include a positive state of mind, being present and within a moment, and mental calmness. Being compassionate, and supporting others, are also ideals that Buddha preached.

Buddhism was one of the most prominent religions that spread rapidly along the routes of the Silk Road. Monks, nuns, and missionaries traveled from India to China, spreading Buddha’s philosophy and teachings. Not only Buddhist monks and missionaries spread the religion and teachings across the routes of the Silk Road, merchants were large transporters of Buddha’s philosophy as well. As Buddhism spread to the West, it evolved and changed. People that converted to the religion began to not only pray to Buddha himself, but other people that had already reached nirvana, for help and protection. Mahayana Buddhism was a form of Buddhism that was unique to the Silk Road. It was open to including other religions, into Buddhism, and expanded other pathways toward belief. Buddhism was a religion so highly regarded and appreciated along the Silk Road because of how fluid it was to accepting and including other religions, such as Christianity and Judaism. As Richard Foltz notes in his book, Religions of The Silk Road, “In reality, religions are like organisms: They are born into this world at a point in time, they grow, develop, undergo diverse influences, and adapt to their environment”. Growing, developing, and adapting to new environments is precisely what Buddhism did.

Buddhism quickly became a malleable, and changeable religion along the Silk Road. It spread, and changed across landscapes, and over several hundred years encompassed large amounts of territory along the Silk Road. Political factors also effected the spread of Buddhism throughout the routes of the Silk Road, particular leaders gravitated towards Buddhist ideas because it was seen as a uniting force. Emperor King Ashoka, of Northern India, adapted Buddhism as a uniting religion of his territory. He was the first to promote and transform Buddhism into a missionary religion, sending people out on missions to spread the religion, and its texts.

As Buddhism spread, translations of Buddhist texts lead to different interpretations of the religion. As Buddhism was translated, it changed, which posed intellectual challenges. As different questions were asked, different answers were needed. Buddhism as a religion was able to flourish and spread, because of the end goal of seeking answers to life’s difficult questions. Siddhartha Gautama was not the first to question human existence, and the “right path” to happiness and well being. Early Greek philosophers, such as Plato and Socrates, were asking questions similar to these. This desire to question human existence, and the true meaning of humanity, resonated with Buddha and his followers, and it was the Siddhartha who first set out to answer these questions. Siddhartha Gautama’s journey and realization that enlightenment involved the life of moderation and the positive state of mind, was the answer to many people’s grief. Buddhism became so popular and widespread in China, that many Chinese monks began to travel back to India, in order to discover the sources of the faith that Buddha created.Buddha’s ideas and teachings resonated with the travelers and traders along the routes of the Silk Road, desperate for answers to why human life entailed suffering.

Although there are very limited texts available on Buddha himself, and his life, it is evident that his contribution to the history of the Silk Road was immense. Prince Siddhartha Gautama set out on a journey to discover the true meaning of human existence, and understand the nature of suffering. After reaching his own enlightenment, and reaching the point of nirvana, he felt as though he needed to share his euphoric experience. Siddhartha later became known as the Buddha, which is the Sanskrit word for “One who is awake”, and traveled around Northern India preaching his philosophy. Buddha’s teachings became the backbone to the religion Buddhism, which quickly became one of the most pronounced religions along the Silk Road. Missionaries set out to spread Buddha’s teachings, which intrigued the merchants and travelers along the routes of the Silk Road. The religion evolved, and changed as is spread across vast territories, by merchants, traders, and travelers. The religion connected diverse groups of people, and was able to protect them in foreign lands. Without Siddhartha Gautama’s curiosity to deeply question human nature, and human life, the Buddhist religion would not have been born. Siddhartha Gautama’s beliefs and practices allowed for Buddhism to link cultures and people along the Silk Road, while creating a better understanding of the human experience.

Paper-A critical object that traveled the Silk Road

 

Paper was first created in China, under the Han Dynasty, and was an extremely valuable object that spread from China to the West and through the world, through the routes of the Silk Road. Paper became a widespread necessity, after it was discovered that it was a relatively inexpensive, strong, and flexible material that could be used for keeping records and writing. Paper was an object that traveled the routes of the Silk Road, and allowed for the flow of religions, cultures, and people. The history of the Silk Road would not be the same, for without the production and exchange of paper, there would not have been the variety of movements, networks, and connections along the routes.

Paper was originally created by mixing water with the fibers from the bark of a mulberry tree, and pounding it into a sheet. Papermaking was able to originate in China, for the mulberry plant that is native to China. It was then discovered that the quality of paper could be improved, by adding materials such as the fibers of hemp, rice straw, and seaweed. Paper was produced by pouring the fibrous pulp upon cloth covered frames, or molds. The process was then advanced to dipping the molds directly into macerated liquid metal. The change of method led to the rapid production of paper, for it allowed the artisans to create better quality paper, as well as produce it in greater quantities.

After paper was first created in China, Buddhist Monks in China began to work on ways of mass-producing prayers. By 650 A.D they were block printing prayers, which was when texts were carved into wooden blocks, and then covered in ink and pressing paper to the block to print the text on a page. The use of paper was crucial to the spread of religions including Buddhism, and Islam. Paper was an unknown product in the Mediterranean before the spread of Islam. Islam emerged as a religion amongst early nomadic tribes and traders. This religion was able to rapidly spread, and eventually dominate the entire southern half of the Mediterranean, due to its followers that were travelers and traders. The spreading of the Islamic religion became not only a religious, but political, and military mission.  The first copies of the entire text of the Qur’an, which was Gods revelation to his prophet Muhammad, were originally transcribed on parchment codices. After Muslim armies conquered Central Asia in the late 7^th and 8^th centuries, paper was discovered among the Muslim community for the first time. The full text of the Quar’an was then printed on paper. It would not have been possible, without the production of paper, to spread these texts as rapidly as they had, which led to the spread of the religion. Sacred religious texts written on paper allowed for the preservation of the text as well.

Chinese paper traveled the Silk Road into Central Asia before the technology of paper production. It replaced the use of barks, papyrus, and animal skins for writing purposes. From Central Asia the process of papermaking than moved toward India. The technology of papermaking was then introduced into the Islamic world, after Muslim armies invaded Central Asia. Paper became an extremely useful product in the Muslim community, and a papermaking factory was established in 796 in Baghdad. Baghdad was an Islamic capitol, and famous as a city of culture and learning. Muslims did not have access to the mulberry plant, which was originally used in China to produce paper, so they substituted materials such as cotton and hemp. Elizabeth Grotenhuis article about paper’s significance along the Silk Road writes that, “Paper helped link the Islamic world across three continents- Asia, Africa, and Europe. By the twelfth century, paper itself, the technology of its production, and the knowledge written on it began to travel from Spain and Sicily to the rest of Europe”. For traders on the silk road, paper had a large advantage. It absorbed ink, thus it could not be erased. This made forgery of trades and business deals much more difficult, as well as allowed texts and documents to be preserved.

The development and production of paper that spread to the West, aided to European education, political, and commercial activities. As paper reached West Asia, artisans began to make books out of paper, rather than large scrolls that were traditionally used in India and China. Books were much more portable than scrolls, and much more feasible to travel with. The production of books than spread Eastward with the travelers and traders, and books began to be produced in China and India as well. Western education, medicine, and science would not have become so successful without the use of paper for record keeping and texts. Paper was an object that not only spread sacred texts along the silk road, it was also a means that spread human culture. Paper, along the silk road, was a very valuable commodity and was traded and exchanged along the silk road routes for other materials such as spices, fabrics and ivory of the same economic value. Paper was such an influential object along the Silk Road, because it was used in a variety of ways, changing the way that education and religious traditions were taught and practiced.

Paper is an object that changed the human experience. It was created originally in China, under the Han Dynasty, and traveled to Central Asia. From there, the production of paper moved into India, and eventually to the West to Europe. The process of producing paper evolved and advanced, and new materials were discovered that produced better quality and larger quantities of paper. Paper was able to become a widespread necessity, through the routes of the Silk Road. It was brought along with merchants, travelers, and traders, and exchanged along the routes for materials such as spices, ivory, and silk. Travelers and traders quickly discovered that paper was a cheaper and easier way to produce mass texts, as opposed to previous means such as papyrus. Paper was not only an object that was traded along the Silk Road routes as an exchange for other materials, or currency. It was an object that allowed for the flow and exchange of religious ideas, beliefs, and cultures. It provided an economical and convenient means for transmissions of ideas and texts. Without the widespread expansion of paper, through the routes of the Silk Road, fields such as technology, science, medicine, politics, and education would not have been able to flourish throughout the world as they did.

Constantinople: A Capital that shaped the history of the Silk Road

 

 

Constantinople is located in Northern Turkey, and was a city that was founded by Constantine, after he took over Byzantium and renamed it after himself.  Constantine expanded the Roman Empire and took over other territories, such as Byzantium, due to the rise of Christianity in the Empire as well as the flourishing economy due to global trade along the Silk Road. For several reasons, this city played a great role in the cultural, and economic exchange between the East and the West.

One of the largest reasons that Constantinople was such a successful location for trading, was because of its geographical features. It is almost entirely surrounded by water, which was very important for sea trade. Constantinople’s location provides military access to the Mediterranean, Black Sea, Danube River, Dnieper River. This location provided easy access for trade along the Silk Road, while separating Europe from Asia. Constantinople soon became the new center of Imperial power, and was the perfect location for the new capital. The location of Constantinople was also strategic because it was easier to protect from attack, due to the surrounding bodies of water.

Constantinople’s geographical location is how it was able to acquire so much wealth. The Silk Road trade route traveled through Constantinople, and merchants and traders bought and sold many goods and luxury items. Goods from Africa, India and China were brought into brought into Constantinople and then shipped further west. The ports allowed for Constantinople to engage in sea trade, which in turn brought in wealth, and goods. Goods such as spices, fur, leather goods, honey, wax, and ivory were all brought into the city to be traded by merchants from many different countries. Constantinople was also one of the first territories in Europe to create Silk. Silk was then used as an important commodity, used to sell and create profit.

Another interesting point about Constantinople, is that it played a large role along the Silk Road not only for its geographical location and large export of silk, it was also an empire that thrived off of spreading Christianity. Constantine took over Byzantium and renamed it Constantinople with the vision that it would become a new Christian capitol.

Christianity united imperial authority, and in Constantinople allowed for a close relationship between merchants and aristocrats, as well as monopolized industries. Christianity in the Byzantine Empire lead to shape Silk Road travel and trade, for it linked merchants and travelers and united them. The unity of Christianity then lead to political unity, which lead to Constantinople being politically and economically stable, and thriving in trade along the Silk Road.

Many other emperors after Constantine were able to continue the empires success and rule the empire as though Constantine would have wished. Another influential emperor of the city, was Justinian. Justinian modeled himself after Constantine, and promoted Christianity. Justinian had large ambitions of political unity amongst the empire, and felt the only way to do so was by uniting the empire with Christianity, which he successfully did. Under his rule different schooling was put in place, and there was a triumph of Christian learning and texts. Monastic Education was a new form of teaching, that taught grammar from the psalms, or the text of the old testament.   The empire vastly changed under Justinian, for he lead the Empire to becoming even more united and prosperous than ever before, while displaying himself as a strong and powerful ruler.

Constantinople is a place that’s importance is still relevant while analyzing global history today. It is a place that is not only studied for its economy, or its land, or its culture, but for virtually all the aspects of the city that made it the as successful and powerful as it was. As James Bryce puts it, “For fifteen hundred years she (Constantinople) has been a seat of empire, and for an even longer period the emporium of a commerce, to which the events of our own time seem destined to give a growing magnitude). The Silk Road and all of its routes would not have functioned the way that it did without the Constantinople being one of the largest routes.

Goods and luxury items, such as silk, were not the only things that Constantinople exchanged along the Silk Road. Christianity was the capitals most prominent religion, and one that the people within Constantinople valued highly. The people of Constantinople greatly admired their emperors, as they did their God. Christianity was a potent force not only within Constantinople, but among the Silk Road. Travelers, merchants, and traders that were in and out of the capital felt a sense of connection and linkage, due to the practices and rituals of Christianity. While studying the Silk Road, Constantinople is only one tiny dot along the entirety of it. However, it is a place that transcends boarders and boundaries, and made it possible for the exchange of not only goods, but cultures, practices, and religion. Constantinople is a place that aided to shape the interactions, exchange, and communication along the Silk Road. Constantinople is a key piece in studying and understanding the networks and exchanges involved in the Silk Road, for without its geographical features, manufactured goods, and religious culture and practices, the Silk Road would not have functioned and flourished as it did.